The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has raised 35 billion Mongolian togrog (MNT) (about $10.2 million) in its first health bond denominated in the local currency of a borrowing member. The issue sets a milestone for health-focused local-currency bonds.

The bond carries a 11.25% semi-annual coupon with a 2-year bullet maturity, denominated in MNT and settled in United States dollars. The bond issue was underwritten by ING Bank N.V. and was placed 100% with asset managers based in Europe.

The proceeds will fund ADB’s Intermed Hospital Expansion Project for International Medical Center LLC in Mongolia. This project aims to bring quality health care to middle-class Mongolians and improve medical accessibility for distant communities.

“ADB has long recognized the catalytic role it plays in bringing local currency financing to support emerging market needs in various sectors,” said ADB Treasurer Pierre Van Peteghem. “The capability to help ADB’s borrowers mitigate currency risk is crucial to the success of these projects. This first local currency health bond is a continuation of ADB’s commitment to support Mongolia’s economic recovery.”

Pope Francis will be the first Pope to visit the East Asian nation of Mongolia at the beginning of September 2023. Cardinal Crescenzio Sepe, Pope St John Paul II’s special envoy to Mongolia in 2002 and 2003 recalls his experiences in the country and looks ahead to the Holy Father’s upcoming visit.

As the former Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples recalls, Pope Francis’ upcoming apostolic visit to Mongolia is a journey that Pope St John Paul II had planned to undertake in 2003, after having entrusted the nation to Our Lady and established the first Apostolic Prefect in the country where the Catholic Church had to rebuild from scratch after 70 years of communist regime.

“I am in love with Mongolia! And with its beautiful, proud and friendly people!“ said Cardinal Crescenzio Sepe as he recalled his experience in the East Asian country which he visited twice, as Pope St. John Paul II’s special envoy during the years in which the Catholic Church there slowly started to grow in numbers and extension.

Mongolian Catholics in a ger district

Mongolian Catholics in a ger district

Frontier of evangelization

It was at the beginning of the millennium and the Polish Pope, Cardinal Sepe continued in an interview with Fides News Agency, was well aware that Mongolia represented a real frontier of evangelization, a place where the first missionaries were baptizing Catholics and setting up mission stations and churches where people felt supported, both spiritually and concretely with educational and livelihood programmes.

Unfortunately, John Paul II was unable to undertake a scheduled journey to Mongolia in 2003 due to his deteriorating health conditions, but he sent Cardinal Sepe on his behalf, on two occasions – in 2002 and in 2003 – to show closeness to the nascent Catholic community there; to mark the establishment of diplomatic relations between the Holy See and Ulaanbaatar; to consecrate the Catholic Cathedral of Sts Peter and Paul in Ulaanbaatar on a plot of land given to the Church by the Mongolian President; and to ordain Mongolia’s first Apostolic Prefect, Filipino Bishop Wenceslao Padilla.

Ambassador of Mongolia to the Holy See Gerelmaa Davaasuren presents her credentials to Pope Francis

Ambassador of Mongolia to the Holy See Gerelmaa Davaasuren presents her credentials to Pope Francis

The love of a pastor

“What Pope John Paul II could not do Cardinal Sepe said, “Pope Francis is doing“ as he prepares to travel to Mongolia from 31 August to 4 September, becoming the first Roman pontiff in history to visit the country.

He will bring, he said, the care and the love of a pastor to the 1,450-strong Catholic community and continue to foster good diplomatic relations and crucial interreligious dialogue with the majority Buddhist nation.

Pope Francis and Mongolian Buddhist leaders in the Vatican

Pope Francis and Mongolian Buddhist leaders in the Vatican

it will be a wonderful journey, the Cardinal noted, speaking at length of the great beauty of the sparsely-populated land of boundless steppes where tens of thousands of wild horses roam the wild and where the majority of Mongolians live as nomads, following the seasons with their herds of sheep, goats and camels, always taking their homes and families with them.

Cardinal Sepe concluded with his personal recollection of the current Apostolic Prefect, the young Cardinal Giorgio Marengo, who lived in the country for three years to learn the language before founding his mission in 2006 in remote southern Mongolia, beyond the Gobi desert, with the joy of a true Christian who knows he is never alone.

By Linda Bordoni

Unprecedented Growth in Foreign Tourism

The year 2023 marks a significant milestone for Mongolia’s tourism industry. The country witnessed an overwhelming surge in foreign tourism, with a year-on-year increase of 73%, amounting to a total of 421,780 visitors. This unexpected leap in tourism numbers is predominantly attributed to tourists from Russia, China, and South Korea.

Bayan-Ulgii: A New Tourist Paradise

The westernmost province of Bayan-Ulgii, nestled between China and Russia, emerged as a popular attraction for these tourists. The region is acclaimed for its unspoiled natural beauty, including the majestic Altai Tavan Bogd Mountain and the serene White River. Furthermore, it offers a wide variety of activities such as horseback riding, trekking, and camping, making it a favorite among nature enthusiasts and adventure seekers.

Overcoming Pandemic Challenges: Government Initiatives

In response to the devastating impact of the pandemic on the tourism industry, the Mongolian government took several measures to stimulate its revival. One such initiative was the introduction of visa-free entry for tourists from 34 additional countries, raising the total number of visa-exempt countries to 61. This move has proven to be successful in attracting a larger international audience.

Moreover, to further promote tourism, the years 2023-2025 have been officially declared as “Years to Visit Mongolia”. This campaign seeks to highlight Mongolia’s unique cultural heritage and natural beauty, enticing potential tourists to explore this under-discovered destination.

Shifting Economic Focus: From Mining to Tourism

Traditionally, Mongolia’s economy heavily relies on its export-oriented mining sector. However, the government is now looking towards the development of the tourism industry as a promising way to diversify the country’s economic landscape. This shift in focus is driven by the potential benefits that a thriving tourism industry can offer – from job creation to regional development and preservation of cultural heritage.

Positive Indications for the Mongolian Economy

The considerable growth in tourism numbers in 2023 is a positive sign for the Mongolian economy. It indicates that the country’s efforts to boost tourism are beginning to bear fruit. The increase in foreign tourists not only contributes to the economy but also promotes cultural exchange, enhancing Mongolia’s international image.

Looking Forward

With its diverse landscape, rich history, and unique culture, Mongolia has much to offer. The recent surge in tourism underscores the untapped potential of this Asian nation. As Mongolia continues to implement forward-thinking strategies and initiatives, the future of its tourism industry and overall economic growth looks promising.

According to the social and economic statistics presented by the National Statistics Office of Mongolia, the total production of the industrial sector in the first half of this year equaled MNT 13.2 trillion.

This marks an increase of MNT 4.6 trillion or 54.2 percent from the same period of the last year. It includes:

• mining sector increased by MNT 3.7 trillion or 67.3 percent,

• processing production grew by 31.3 percent.

Money and finance: The balance of outstanding loans increased to MNT 1.3 trillion or 20.0 percent, and the balance of non-performing loans increased to MNT 2.2 trillion or 5.3 percent respectively.

Exchange rate: The average monthly exchange rate of MNT against USD is 3438.26.

• average monthly exchange rate of MNT against EUR is 3727.66,

• average monthly exchange rate of MNT against RMB is 479.83,

• average monthly exchange rate against of MNT against RUB is 41.07.

Foreign trade: Mongolia traded USD 8.6 billion with China in the first half of this year, which accounts 73 percent of the total foreign trade turnover.

A regular meeting of the capital city authorities was held on July 18. At the beginning of the meeting, Mayor of Ulaanbaatar D.Sumiyabazar expressed his gratitude to the authorities, the personnel, and officers who worked promptly at in the face of the flood situation and organized to overcome the event with a minimum damage.

In the previous meeting, the mayor gave tasks in 21 areas, and the implementation rate was about 85 percent. It was ordered to thoroughly prepare for the winter season, to intensify the repair of engineering supplies, to carry out recovery work according to standards, and to regularly monitor its implementation. In this context, 25 organizations implemented 658 measures, and the implementation rate is 55 percent.

The districts have established the sub-working groups to analyze the effects of the disaster and assess the damage caused, and the damage assessment is ongoing. For example, in Bayanzurkh District, there are 15 roads and 12 sidewalks damaged by floods. A total of 297 households were flooded and one household lost its home in Chingeltei District. In Khan-Uul District, 322 citizens from 68 households, and in Songinohairkhan District 47 households were affected by flood.

The mayor emphasized that citizens’ safety should be given priority.

Area of 4,259,619 square meters disinfected

In the vicinity of Ulaanbaatar, the flood level of the Tuul River is 202 cm, the dangerous flood level is 260 cm, and on the morning of July 8, it reached 311 cm, exceeding the dangerous flood level by 50 cm. One hundred twenty-one thousand people from 31,600 households in 26 khoroos of the capital, streets, roads, tunnels and 144 buildings in 11 locations were affected by floods. Moreover, 52,965 consumers lost electricity, and there occurred a risk to life, health, property, and engineering supplies. A total of 14,828 employees performed duties with 2,203 technics in 18 locations. In addition, 743 people from 243 flooded households were evacuated to safety by helicopter, boat and on foot and no casualties have been recorded. Along the Tuul and Selbe rivers, sand, gravel and dirt were unloaded, and the dams of the river were strengthened. A total of 870 employees and volunteers from 16 organizations worked with 324 equipments and technics, and cleaned an area of 22.7 million square meters, and transported 10,540 tons of mud. Between July 10 and 16, a total area of 4,259,619 square meters was disinfected with fogging vehicles. Decontamination was carried out by nine licensed companies.

No positive specimens detected in 57 samples of water and soil

A total of 28 chemical and bacteriological samples from seven sewage treatment facilities, 194 chemical and bacteriological samples from six sources of drinking water in the capital, 80 water distribution houses, 11 privately owned abyssinian wells, and samples from a total of 74 points determined by the level of soil pollution have been delivered to the laboratory. Of the 57 samples, there were no positive specimens detected, and the results of other tests are pending.

The mayor reminded to carry out disinfection frequently.

Risk assessment planned for 89 buildings

Monitoring of constructions, roads, bridges, dams, ditches, and diversions that slow down the flow of flood water was carried out and a survey of 734 buildings affected by the special protection zone of the Selbe and Tuul rivers, or an area of 245 hectares, was conducted. Eighteen flood-risk locations along the Selbe River and the risk status of the Tuul River dams have been assessed. Moreover, in cooperation with relevant organizations, the current state of the dam of the Selbe River was checked, repairs and renovations were carried out, and buildings that were flooded were inspected. Accordingly, plans were made to assess the quality, safety or risk of construction in 89 buildings. Based on the survey of buildings affected by flood of the Selbe River, a plan was made to conduct a building quality, safety or risk assessment for 89 buildings.

Inspection of all substations and electrical equipment conducted

Inspection, repair, and emergency service teams worked, and inspections, maintenance and monitoring on electrical and network equipment were carried out regularly. Unscheduled inspection of all lines, substations, and electrical equipment was performed, and the detected damages were eliminated. During the the heightened state of readiness, 434 engineers and technicians with 108 equipment have worked. In addition, 117 substations that may be flooded were inspected, and measures were taken to prevent water to enter into 30 substations.

Sekiwake Hoshoryu clinched his first Emperor’s Cup on July 23 at the Nagoya Grand Sumo Tournament, effectively guaranteeing his promotion to the second-highest rank of ozeki.

The 24-year-old Mongolian native entered the final day of the tournament tied with Hokutofuji, maegashira No. 9, and Hakuoho, maegashira No. 17, at 11 wins and three losses.

Hoshoryu defeated Hakuoho with an overarm throw, while Hokutofuji pulled down Nishikigi, maegashira No. 1, in an earlier bout.

In a playoff, Hoshoryu pushed Hokutofuji out of the dohyo.

An uncle of Hoshoryu is former yokozuna Asashoryu, who won 25 tournament championships in his career.

Hoshoryu’s promotion to ozeki is expected to be officially decided on July 26.

Wrestlers typically need to score 33 wins over the three most recent tournaments while ranked as sekiwake or komusubi, the third- and fourth-highest positions in the sport, to be promoted to ozeki.

Hoshoryu won 10 bouts in the spring tournament and 11 bouts in the summer tournament, and then added 12 wins from the Nagoya tournament.

He will be the 31st wrestler to be promoted to ozeki since the Heisei Era began in 1989 and the seventh ozeki from Mongolia.

The State Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs N. Ankhbayar received Fiona Blyth, the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to Mongolia, on July 21. During the meeting, the newly appointed Ambassador handed over a copy of her Credentials.

The State Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs N. Ankhbayar congratulated the Ambassador on taking up her position and expressed his full support.

During the meeting, the parties emphasized that this year marks the 60th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between Mongolia and the United Kingdom, discussed the events organized in this context, and confirmed that they would work together to further strengthen bilateral and multilateral cooperation.

Ms. Blyth, who has previously served as the deputy head of mission in Hanoi, Vietnam, and as the head of policy in the UK Mission to the United Nations, brings with her a wealth of experience in international relations and diplomacy. In her new role, she will be responsible for strengthening the UK’s relationship with Mongolia, particularly in the areas of trade, investment, and cultural exchange.

Xanadu Mines Ltd. [XAM-TSX, ASX] and joint venture partner Zijin Mining Group Co. Ltd. [ZIJMF-OTC] have provided an update on recent infill drilling at the Kharmagtai project in Mongolia. Infill drilling has defined a new zone (core) of high-grade copper and gold mineralization at the Whit deposit and results continue to validate the total mineral resource model.

Highlights: Approximately 27,000 metres of phase one diamond drilling have been completed (out of 30,000 m total) at both the Stockwor and Whit deposits, at Kharmagtai.

Exceptional highlights from an additional 14 drill holes demonstrate a new high-grade zone (core) is emerging at Whit and extending below the currently optimized pit.

Best drilling results include drill holes that returned KHDDH638 that returned 544 metres at 0.4% copper equivalent (eCu) (0.34% Cu and 0.12 g/t Au) from 273.4 metres, including 63 metres at 1.03% eCu (0.92% Cu and 0.23 g/t Au) from 634 metres, including 28 metres at 1.45% eCu (1.45% Cu and 0.32 g/t Au) from 645 metres.

KHDDH634 returned 654 metres at 0.34% eCu (0.28% Cu and 0.11 g/t Au) from 172 metres, including 32 metres at 0.61% eCu (0.48% Cu and 0.25g/t Au) from 512 metres; and 58 metres at 0.71% eCu (0.59% Cu and 0.23 g/t Au) from 617 metres, including eight metres at 1.45% eCu (1.17% Cu and 0.50g/t Au) from 651 metres.

Newly identified high-grade (over 1% eCu) core at Whit demonstrates potential to enhance the 2021 mineral resource estimate (MRE) (3 million tonnes of copper and 8 million ounces gold (1.98 million copper equivalent (CuEq) indicated, 2.33 million t eCu inferred)).

Kharmagtai joint venture is financing US$35-million prefeasibility study completion and discovery exploration, aiming toward decision to mine in fourth quarter of fiscal year 2024.

Executive chairman and managing director, Colin Moorhead, said: “I’m particularly proud of our hardworking geology team making steady progress at Kharmagtai, better defining the Whit deposit. Both drill holes KHDDH638 and KHDDH634 have effectively intercepted the top of a previously undefined high-grade core at Whit.

“Both Stockwor and Copper Hill deposits feature these higher-grade zones (core), and previous drilling at Whit has suggested such a zone may be present there also.

“However, this is the first time we have observed significant intervals spanning greater than 50 m of mineralization at grades greater than 1 per cent eCu at Whit.

“We see this as a very positive result, with strong potential to impact PFS pit optimization and very encouraging for higher grade mineralization to be uncovered at depth.”

Infill drilling intercepts high-grade core at Whit: Approximately 27,000 metres of infill drilling has been completed, as part of the 30,000 m phase one infill drilling program. Assay results have been returned for 14 additional drill holes, with results generally better than, or in line with, 2021 MRE grades.

Several drill holes have encountered materially better grade relative to the Whit MRE resource grade. Drill hole KHDDH638, located on the southern margin of the Whit deposit, targeted a mineralized and resource controlling fault, intersecting a significantly higher-grade zone of copper and gold mineralization that is located below the current optimized pit design.

Drill hole KHDDH634 targeted definition and expansion of mineralization at Whit within the current mineral resource estimate. It intersected the top of a new high-grade zone and returned the following interval along the edge and outside of the current open-pit optimization.

Four diamond drill rigs are currently focused on Kharmagtai infill drilling, with the objective to target areas with potential for future mineral resource to ore reserve conversion. Totalling about 30,000 metres, the infill drilling program is planned to specifically increase the resource confidence category from inferred to indicated. As such, the planned drill holes aim to remove any mineralization knowledge gaps around the edges of existing deposits.

Kharmagtai currently has an inferred and indicated resource of 1.1 billion tonnes containing three million tonnes Cu and eight million oz Au. As part of the Kharmagtai PFS, the resource will be upgraded to indicated classification, enabling a maiden, JORC-compliant ore reserve to be reported. To achieve this, the infill drilling program is designed to upgrade and extend strike length of the shallow open-pit resource areas and selected deeper high-grade zones, including investigation of near-mine, higher-grade extensions.

Xanadu is the operator of a 50-50 JV with Zijin Mining Group in Khuiten Metals Pte. Ltd., which controls 76.5% of the Kharmagtai project.

The European Union-Mongolia sixth Human Rights Dialogue was held virtually on 18 July.

The EU and Mongolia discussed a broad range of human rights related issues in an open and constructive atmosphere. The EU underlined the importance of preserving the rules-based international order, multilateralism, respect for international law and principles of the UN Charter. The two sides reaffirmed their commitment to the universality and indivisibility of human rights and the full implementation of the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement, including further strengthening cooperation on human rights and the rule of law.

The EU informed about relevant recent developments in Europe, such as the EU Global Human Rights Sanctions Regime, the Rule of Law Mechanism and the Anti-Corruption package adopted in May 2023.

Mongolia and the EU discussed the implementation of the recommendations accepted by Mongolia during its United Nations Universal Periodic Review. The EU encouraged Mongolia to continue making progress, inter alia, on the removal of any reference to the death penalty in the constitution, and on combating any discrimination based on any ground. In this context, the EU and Mongolia also exchanged on the follow up of the Concluding Observations of the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). The EU highlighted in particular the need to adopt comprehensive legislation prohibiting discrimination, including multiple, direct, and indirect discrimination on all grounds prohibited under international law.

Mongolia and the EU discussed the follow up of the Concluding Observations of the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The EU stressed the importance of a safe and enabling space for civil society and human rights defenders. The EU referred to Mongolia’s law on the protection of human rights defenders as a very positive example in the region, and encouraged Mongolia to enforce this law to protect human rights defenders and promote their work.

The EU and Mongolia also exchanged on the work being undertaken in strengthening the judicial system and ensuring its independence. The EU welcomed the judicial reforms in Mongolia and presented its activities in the field of support to the judiciary.

The EU welcomed the adoption of the revised law on the National Human Rights Commission of Mongolia (NHRCM) and stressed the need to strengthen its independence and effective capacity.

The EU congratulated Mongolia on the launching of the National Action Plan on Business and Human Rights and reiterated its support to its implementation in the framework of the project Business and Human Rights in Asia, in line with the EU’s commitment to actively promote the implementation of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs).

The EU recalled the importance of fulfilling GSP+ related commitments and provided an update on the revision of the GSP+ regulation.

Mongolia and the EU discussed cooperation in international human rights fora, including the UN General Assembly. They agreed to strengthen their cooperation in the framework of the Alliance for Torture-Free Trade.

The meeting was co-chaired by Ms Nicoletta Pusterla, Deputy Head of Division for China, Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan and Mongolia at the European External Action Service and by Ms Tseveen NAVCHAA, Head of the Human Rights Division, International Law and Treaty Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia.

The mystery, magic and mayhem of the Mongol Empire is given a new lease on life in a fresh translation of the ancient saga, the Secret History of the Mongols

The Mongol empire and “Genghis Khan” (more about that title below) have captured the world’s imagination. But how much do we really know about him and the empire’s rise?

Most of what we know actually comes from the Secret History of the Mongols, a saga of the empire’s founding, written in Mongolian 25 years after the great khan died.

A new translation from Penguin Classics of this amazing work gives us an inside picture of how the Mongols began their nomadic empire.

The Mongols used hunting and weather magic for military purposes

The Mongols are famous for building the biggest land empire in history. But their military machine had some surprising features.

As nomads, the soldiers brought their base camp, with women, children, and old men, to within a day’s ride of the battlefield, so even at war, they would feel at home.

They only campaigned in the cold season, saving the summer for big parties and planning sessions, called quriltai.

"In some of their most crucial battles, they used jada (weather stones) to drop snow storms on their enemies"

When not fighting, they used huge mass hunts, covering hundreds of square miles, to practise group formation and feed themselves with a high protein diet.

And in some of their most crucial battles, they used jada (weather stones) to drop snow storms on their enemies—although sometimes that backfired and the snow fell on the magic makers themselves.

Genghis Khan’s real name was Temujin

Genghis Khan ascends the throne in the Yeke Quriltay in the source region in the Onan river .Over the course of his reign, Temujin adopted the name Chinggis Khan, meaning "oceanic" or "hard emperor"

When the great khan was born, his father named him Temujin or “Blacksmith”—not because he was a blacksmith but to commemorate the capture of a rival captain named Temujin.

When Temujin unified all the Mongols, he took the title “khan,” the Mongol word for emperor.

Khans also adopted special titles: Temujin took the title “Chinggis Khan.” Scholars still debate whether that meant “oceanic emperor” or “hard emperor”—he was certainly both.

What he couldn’t have known is that centuries later, European scholars would misread Persian manuscripts and turn “Chinggis” into “Genghis.”

Temujin was raised by a single mum

When Temujin was nine years old, his father was poisoned and rivals stole away his family’s followers. The Secret History tells how Temujin was raised alone on the steppe. He was even captured once by his enemies and had to use his wits to escape back to his family.

Temujin’s family was a victim of China’s “Use Barbarians to Control Barbarians” policy

Mongolian empire's siege of Zhongdu (modern Beijing), as depicted in the Persian Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din HamadaniTemujin held a deep hatred for the Chinese after they orchestrated the poisoning of his father

Rulers from China tried to control their northern frontier in a peaceful way—peaceful for them, that is. The usual method was to get one group of nomads to attack another—the more casualties the better to “thin the ranks” of the nomads.

Temujin’s father was poisoned as part of this strategy and he inherited a deep hatred of the Chinese and their nomad stooges who had killed his fathers and grandfathers for several generations.

The teenage Temujin killed his half-brother

Temujin’s father had two wives. As they got older, the sons of the two wives began to struggle over who would lead the family.

Things got so bad Temujin and his brother shot dead the older of their half brothers. His mother was furious with them, but from then on, it was clear who was leader.

Chinggis Khan’s wives were his most important advisors

Twice, Temujin faced hostility from key allies. First, his blood brother Jamuqa began suggesting they part ways, then the shaman Teb-Tenggeri whose visions had led to his coronation began to attack Temujin’s brothers.

Both times it was the khan’s first wife Borte who spoke up and demanded that Temujin fight for his family’s future and turn on his so-called friends. Without her, Temujin would not have become khan.

Chinggis Khan’s wife Borte had a son by another man—and he was OK with that

Portrait of Genghis Khan and wife Borte from Mongol empireChinggis Khan's wife Borte fell under suspicion of infidelity when she was captured by rival soldiers

Young Temujin’s darkest moment came when, as a newly married man, his camp was raided. The family escaped, but his new bride Borte was captured and turned over to a rival of his father’s.

Temujin turned to his father’s friends and they launched a campaign to rescue the Borte. But when she gave birth to her first son Joci, doubts remained: was he really Temujin’s son?

Decades later, when the khan set out to conquer Islamic Central Asia, his second son Cagadai attacked Joci as a “bastard.”

In the end Chinggis Khan forbade anyone from suspecting Borte’s faithfulness and Joci’s legitimacy—but he made third son Okodei, who’d kept his peace in the brawl, his heir apparent.

The Mongols organised his whole empire by the decimal system

Once Temujin became Chinggis Khan he numbered his entire kingdom into tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten-thousands. Not just the soldiers—the whole population were included in the “army in the guise of a people.”

Using this decimal organisation, the khans could mobilise the entire population for campaigns, livestock taxes, and even forced migrations to garrison the empire’s expanding frontiers.

Unlike Alexander the Great’s empire, the Mongol empire didn’t fall apart after his death

Okodei Khan portrait from Mongol empireChinggis Khan's son Okodei continued his campaign spreading the Mongol Empire across the world

When Chinggis Khan died, the Mongols still hadn’t conquered China, Russia, or Iran. It was up to Chinggis Khan’s son, starting with Okodei, to do it.

But Chinggis Khan’s choice Okodei held the empire together and made completing the conquest possible.

Even after the empire broke up in his grandson’s generation, the empire kept expanding.

Even after conquering most of the known world, most Mongols preferred to live in mobile homes

The Mongol rulers never stopped moving. Even when they occupied northern China, the Middle East and the steppes along the Volga, they regularly migrated from summer palaces to winter palaces, spending the spring and winter living in “hordes” or mobile palaces.

Christopher P Atwood's new translation of Secret History of the Mongols is published by Penguin (July 27, 2023)