Japanese military maps provide an unprecedented glimpse into the Great Mongolian Road, unveiling its vital infrastructure and historical importance for the first time.
The Great Mongolian Road, an ancient east-west caravan route, has long remained a forgotten chapter of history. A new study, published in the Journal of Historical Geography, has brought this vital path back into the spotlight. By combining century-old maps created by the Japanese Imperial Army with modern field research across southern Mongolia, Dr. Chris McCarthy and his team have revealed new details about the road’s infrastructure and its role in shaping trade and cultural exchange. This groundbreaking work offers the first in-depth look at a crucial historical route once used by camel caravans, merchants, and nomadic herders.
The Gaihōzu Maps: A Glimpse into the Past
The gaihōzu maps, created by Japanese military cartographers between 1873 and 1945, have remained a largely untapped resource for understanding the geography and infrastructure of Inner Asia. These maps, which document regions ranging from Korea to Mongolia and beyond, were initially based on a mix of Chinese imperial records and earlier Russian surveys. The maps’ original purpose was to aid military and strategic planning during a time of intense imperial expansion. However, in the aftermath of World War II, the maps were nearly destroyed under orders from the Japanese government. Fortunately, some were secretly preserved and later transferred to university collections. Dr. McCarthy and his team at Stanford University were able to access and analyze the gaihōzu collection, particularly focusing on the Tōa Yochizu maps, to verify their accuracy and explore their potential for understanding the historical routes that shaped trade and cultural exchanges in the region.
Field Verification: Bridging History with Reality
Dr. McCarthy’s study, published in,  the Journal of Historical Geography, took a hands-on approach, combining the historical data from the gaihōzu maps with field verification across 1,200 kilometers of southern Mongolia. During this process, the team not only confirmed the existence of many documented landmarks but also uncovered new information, particularly regarding the locations of water sources, settlements, monasteries, and other crucial support systems for travelers.
“Herders confirmed oral traditions of sites serving as stopping points along the historical caravan route,” explained Dr. McCarthy, highlighting the invaluable role local knowledge played in the research.
These oral histories, passed down through generations, allowed the team to match specific place names recorded on the ancient maps with their current locations, bringing the past to life in the present day.
The Economy of the Great Mongolian Road: Trade and Commerce
One of the most fascinating aspects of the Great Mongolian Road is its role in trade, particularly in the movement of goods such as tea and steppe products like wool, hides, and livestock. While the study primarily focused on documenting the infrastructure of the route, there are strong indications that the road was a crucial part of the historic Tea Road, facilitating the westward movement of tea from China. The research also found evidence of economic incentives that drove the caravan trade.
“Lattimore describes heavy caravans taking up to 120 days to complete the journey, with express caravans carrying merchandise at a premium under guaranteed time limits taking 90 days,” McCarthy noted.
This insight underscores the incredible commitment and risk that merchants undertook to traverse such a harsh landscape. Additionally, an inscription found at Khurdent Cave references merchants seeking triple profits, further illustrating the financial motivations behind these long, arduous journeys.
The Route’s Legacy and Its Continuation Beyond Mongolia
The Great Mongolian Road, as it is now known, did not end at the Mongolian border but extended through northern Xinjiang, leading southward to Kashgar, and eventually to Central Asia, Persia, and Europe.
“The route continued through to Kucheng in Dzungaria in northern Xinjiang, where it connected to routes leading south to Kashgar and onward to Central Asia, Persia, and eventually Europe,” said Dr. McCarthy.
Lattimore, a prominent scholar of the region, gave this section of the route the name “Great Mongolian Road,” but as McCarthy points out, it was part of a larger, continuous network of trade and cultural exchange. This made it a significant northern alternative to the more widely recognized Silk Road routes that passed through the Taklamakan Desert. While the research focused primarily on the Mongolian portion of the route, it leaves open the possibility for further exploration into China, which could uncover more about the full extent of this trade network.
Local Insights: Traces of Ancient Caravans
A particularly intriguing aspect of the study was the confirmation of ancient caravan routes through physical traces on the landscape. In Khalkhiin Ulaan Davaa, local residents pointed out depressions in the earth that they attributed to centuries of camel caravan traffic.
“At Khalkhiin Ulaan Davaa, local residents pointed out depressions in the earth which they attributed to centuries of camel caravan traffic,” Dr. McCarthy explained.
This is a striking example of how the physical environment bears the marks of centuries-old trade and travel. Throughout the fieldwork, local residents helped to confirm historical place names that matched those recorded on the gaihōzu maps, further solidifying the connection between ancient routes and the modern landscape. These findings offer a rare opportunity to understand how ancient trade routes impacted both the land and the people who lived along them.
About the author, Rania Hadid
Rania is a biology engineer and versatile computer scientist with strong proficiency in digital tools. She holds a Master’s degree in Biology from Mouloud Mammeri University and a BTS in Computer Science, both obtained in 2022. Positioned at the intersection of life sciences and technology, she explores the connections between nature, the environment, and innovation. Since 2023, she has been dedicated to writing web content and has been collaborating with The Indian Defense Review since October 2024.